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The Secession of the Plebs refers to a series of coordinated strikes that occurred during the early history of the Roman Republic. The plebeians, or common citizens, left the city in large groups and established a camp on a nearby hill known as the Sacred Mountain. They engaged in this action to protest the harsh treatment they received from the ruling patrician class. These protests were part of a broader social struggle known as the Conflict of the Orders. Through these secessions, the plebeians achieved several compromises that guaranteed them more rights and political power. There were three major secessions of the plebs that took place in 495–494 BCE, 449 BCE, and 287 BCE.
According to historical tradition, the Roman Republic was founded in 509 BCE. However, not every citizen of the new republic was treated equally. The patricians, who formed the old aristocratic ruling class, maintained strict control over the government. They were the only individuals allowed to hold political office or sit in the Roman Senate. The commoners, or plebeians, possessed almost no political power, despite comprising the vast majority of Rome's population. Most plebeians worked as farmers but were frequently called upon to serve in the army.
There were many battles as Rome struggled against attacks from neighboring tribes. Many soldiers returned home to find their fields burned during the fighting. They were left with nothing. Desperate, they turned to predatory moneylenders and fell into a vicious cycle of debt. Those who could not pay off their debts were often enslaved. This problem worsened as Rome continued to fight its enemies.
One day in 495 BCE, an old man appeared in the Roman Forum. He wore ragged clothes and looked starved. His skin was covered in scars. Some people recognized him as a former army officer who was famous for his heroic exploits. He explained that he had lost everything while serving in the army. His crops had been burnt, his home destroyed, and his cattle stolen. When he returned, he could not pay his taxes and fell into debt. He said, "I lost the land which my father and grandfather had owned... and even my body was not exempt from it, for I was finally seized by my creditor and reduced to slavery."
He lifted his shirt to show the scars on his back from a slaver's whip. His story moved the crowd to both pity and rage. A mob quickly formed. Soon, few senators or moneylenders dared leave their homes. The two consuls, Appius Claudius and Publius Servilius, appeared in the Forum. Appius Claudius was a proud conservative, while Publius Servilius was more sympathetic to the plebs. They promised that if the people dispersed, the Senate would consider their complaints.
Before the Senate could reach a decision, news arrived that an army from the hostile city of Volsci was marching on Rome. Servilius rushed out to address the people. He announced the danger and implored the men to fight. In return, he promised to make it illegal to imprison a Roman citizen for debt. He also said no soldier would have his property seized while serving. To show goodwill, Servilius ordered the immediate release of those already imprisoned for debt. Impressed, many plebs took the military oath. Servilius led his army out and defeated the Volscians.
Appius, however, had no intention of keeping Servilius's promises. As soon as the army disbanded, Appius began giving harsh judgments in debt cases. Veterans were rounded up and hauled off to prison. Feeling betrayed, a mob of soldiers surrounded Servilius's house, pleading for help. But Servilius could not intervene because Appius was supported by almost the entire Senate.
But before they could reach a decision, their discussion was cut short by alarming news – an army from the hostile city of Volsci was marching on Rome. Instantly, Servilius rushed outside the Senate House to address the Roman people. He announced that the city was in danger and implored the men to fight. In return, he promised to issue an edict making it illegal to imprison a Roman citizen for debt and that no soldier would have his property seized or sold while serving in the army. As a show of goodwill, Servilius ordered the immediate release of those already imprisoned for debt. This impressed the plebs, many of whom gathered in the Forum to take the military oath. Servilius then led his army out and defeated the Volscians in battle. The soldiers were allowed to plunder the enemy camp and returned to Rome content, believing that the consuls would keep their word.
Then, news reached Rome that the Sabines were preparing to attack. The Senate asked the people to join the army. Still feeling betrayed, few did. Instead, people took to the streets in protest. Appius ordered his guards to arrest one of the protest leaders. As the man was dragged away, he exercised his right to appeal to the people. Appius was convinced to allow the appeal, and the people voted for his release. Rioting continued for the rest of the year.
In 494 BCE, two new consuls were chosen: Aulus Verginius and Titus Vetusius. The plebs continued holding secret meetings to organize resistance. The decisive moment came when the consuls appeared to again call for soldiers to fight the Sabines. Once again, few people stepped forward. The plebs shouted that they would not fight for Rome until their liberties were guaranteed. Things became so rowdy that the consuls sent a guard into the crowd to arrest a leader. The people pushed the guard back, and the mob became so violent the consuls withdrew.
The senators spent hours deliberating. On the advice of Appius Claudius, they decided to name a dictator to handle the crisis. They selected Manius Valerius Maximus. To get people to join the army, Valerius issued an edict similar to Servilius's earlier promise. This gave the plebs hope, and many took the military oath. Valerius led these troops to battle and won a series of victories.
Now that Rome was safe, Valerius went to the Senate and asked them to resolve the debt crisis. The Senate, too prideful to back down, refused to cooperate. Frustrated and outraged, Valerius resigned the dictatorship in protest.
The senators spent the next several hours deliberating on what to do next. On the advice of Appius Claudius, they decided to meet the crisis by naming a dictator and selected Manius Valerius Maximus for the position. Valerius knew that he had to focus on defeating the invading Sabines, and, to induce the people to join the army, he issued an edict similar to the one Servilius had promised the year before. This was enough to give the plebs hope, and many of them took the military oath. Valerius led these troops to battle and won a series of glorious victories, beating back the enemy. Now that Rome's safety had been assured, Valerius intended to honor his promises and went to the Senate, asking them to resolve the debt crisis. But the Senate, too prideful to back down, refused to cooperate. Frustrated and outraged, Valerius resigned the dictatorship in protest. As he walked home from the Senate House, the former dictator was cheered by the people for his efforts.
That night, the plebs held a secret meeting to figure out what to do next. A plebeian named Lucius Sicinius Vellutus suggested they leave the city entirely and go to the Sacred Mountain. The plebs left the city and set up camp on the mountain. Back in Rome, the senatorial class panicked. Without the plebs to defend them, they were vulnerable to attack. The Senate sent a former consul, Agrippa Menenius Lanatus, to negotiate.
Menenius implored them to return by telling a fable. He said, "Long ago, when the members of the human body did not agree together... the other parts resented... the belly, which remained idle... So the discontented members plotted... to subdue the belly by starvation. But alas! While they sought... to subdue the belly, they themselves and the whole body wasted away to nothing."
Having demonstrated that all parts of society must work together, Menenius offered to negotiate. An agreement was reached. A new political office would be established to represent the commoners. They would be called 'tribunes of the plebs'. These officials would protect the plebeians from the abuses of the patrician class. The office was made sacrosanct, meaning anyone who harmed a tribune would be condemned to death. Once this concession was granted, the plebs returned to Rome, ending the first secession.
For decades, the compromise reduced tensions between the social orders. But the conflict revived in 450 BCE. The Senate appointed a commission of ten men, the decemviri, to draw up a law code for the city. They were to serve for one year, during which all other offices were suspended. The decemviri completed their law code, the famous Twelve Tables, but refused to resign at the end of the year. This caused outrage.
The decemviri became more unpopular after one member, Appius Claudius, tried to rape a beautiful plebeian girl named Verginia. After Verginia was killed by her own father to preserve her honor, riots broke out throughout Rome. The Senate pressured the decemviri to resign, but they refused.
After Verginia was killed by her own father to preserve her honor, riots broke out throughout Rome and even spread to the army, encamped just outside the city. Hoping to quell the riots, the Senate pressured the decemviri to resign, but, once again, they refused. The plebs, remembering the success of their first secession nearly half a century earlier, packed up and withdrew to the Sacred Mountain, leaving the patrician class exposed and vulnerable in Rome. The Senate sent two envoys to negotiate with the plebs, who said they would not come off the mountain until the office of tribune of the plebs was restored and the decemvirate dissolved. This time, the Senate managed to force the resignations of the decemviri, and the republic was restored. True to their word, the plebs came off the mountain and returned to Rome. The Senate passed the Valerio-Horatian laws, which restored the previous rights of the plebeian and increased their political power in other ways.
The plebs, remembering their first secession, withdrew to the Sacred Mountain. This left the patrician class exposed and vulnerable. The Senate sent two envoys to negotiate. The plebs said they would not return until the office of tribune was restored and the decemvirate dissolved. This time, the Senate forced the decemviri to resign, and the republic was restored. The plebs returned to Rome. The Senate passed laws that restored the rights of the plebeians and increased their political power.
The second secession did not end the Conflict of the Orders. The last secession took place in 287 BCE. This occurred right after a major war, when large areas of newly conquered territory were added to Rome. However, the Senate decided to give all this new land only to patricians. The plebeian farmers, who had done most of the fighting, had nothing to show for their efforts except more debts. They seceded once again, this time withdrawing to the Aventine Hill.
As before, the Senate panicked. They appointed a dictator, Quintus Hortensius, to deal with the problem. Rather than use violence, Hortensius decided to compromise with the plebs. He passed a new law called the lex Hortensia. It proclaimed that all laws decided by the Plebeian Council were binding for all Roman citizens, regardless of rank. This law finally gave plebeians the same political power as patricians in making laws.
This third secession effectively ended the Conflict of the Orders. Over two centuries of struggle, the common people of Rome won their rights not through open warfare, but through a powerful, peaceful tactic: leaving the city and refusing to work or fight until their demands were met.
Rather than resort to violent means, however, Hortensius decided to compromise with the plebs. He passed a new law, the lex Hortensia, which proclaimed that all laws decided by the Plebeian Council - or plebiscite - were binding for all Roman citizens, regardless of rank. Essentially, this law finally gave plebeians the same political rights as patricians, at least on paper. Wealthy plebeians could now hold high offices and could even join the Senate; though patricians still had greater status as old nobility, they no longer had a monopoly on government in Rome. Thus, the Conflict of the Orders was over after two centuries of intermittent class struggle. By no means did this signal the end of class conflict in Rome – indeed, the story of rich versus poor would affect many other episodes in Roman history – but it did see the end of the remarkable general strikes of the lower class, the secessions of the plebs.