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Ereshkigal: Mesopotamian Queen of the Dead
worldhistory.org
Ereshkigal, also known as Irkalla or Allatu, was the supreme monarch of the Mesopotamian underworld. Her title translates to "Queen of the Great Below" or "Lady of the Great Place." These names reflect her absolute authority over the realm of death. She governed Kurnugia, a vast and somber domain literally interpreted as the "Land of No Return." In Mesopotamian mythology, Kurnugia was located beneath the Mountains of Sunset to the west. It was depicted as an immense, gloomy expanse where the souls of the deceased were condemned to consume muddy water and eat dust. They lived in a state of perpetual neglect and darkness.
Ereshkigal maintained strict control over her kingdom. She ensured that the living were barred from entering to uncover the mysteries of the afterlife. Her royal residence, the palace of Ganzir, stood at the very entrance to the underworld. This fortress was protected by seven distinct gates, each guarded by her loyal servant, Neti. For a significant period, Ereshkigal ruled in solitary power. Later, the war deity Nergal assumed the role of her consort and co-ruler for half the year.
Her lineage was significant as the elder sister of the goddess Inanna. Her first husband was Gugalanna, the "Great Bull of Heaven," who died at the hands of Enkidu in The Epic of Gilgamesh. She also had relationships with other deities, including Enlil. Another partner was the father of her daughter, Nungal, a deity associated with both punishment and healing. Among her partners, only Nergal consented to remain with her in the underworld permanently.
Ereshkigal was arguably the most terrifying deity in the Mesopotamian pantheon because she embodied the final, irreversible destination of human existence. Unlike many other gods, there is no universally accepted visual representation of her. The Burney Relief, a clay plaque dating to the reign of King Hammurabi (1792-1750 BCE), is often theorized to depict her. The relief portrays a naked woman with downward-pointing wings standing atop two lions. However, scholars remain divided, suggesting the figure could also represent Inanna or the demon Lilith. The scarcity of her imagery likely stems from religious caution. Mesopotamians believed that creating an image of a deity invited their attention. A statue of the Queen of the Dead might have drawn her focus toward the creator, a consequence considered highly undesirable and dangerous.
Ereshkigal first appears in written history within the Sumerian poem The Death of Ur-Nammu, which dates to the reign of King Shulgi of Ur (2094-2046 BCE). Evidence suggests she was venerated even earlier, during the Akkadian period (2350-2154 BCE). By the Old Babylonian period (1894-1595 BCE), her status as the Queen of the Dead was firmly established across the region. This historical trajectory supports the interpretation that the Queen of the Night relief, another famous artifact, actually depicts Ereshkigal. These early records indicate that powerful deities were originally female. This dynamic shifted as goddesses gradually lost social and religious status in later Mesopotamian history.
While Inanna, also known as Ishtar, achieved widespread popularity and may have inspired goddesses in other cultures such as Astarte, Aphrodite, and Venus, the structural dynamics of the underworld differed significantly across cultures. In most ancient traditions, the underworld was ruled by a male deity. Ereshkigal remains unique as the only female deity to hold this supreme position, even after Nergal became her consort. Her solitary authority challenged the patriarchal norms of divine governance in the ancient world.
Although Ereshkigal was feared, she was simultaneously respected. The poem The Descent of Inanna is frequently interpreted in modern times as a symbolic journey of self-discovery. However, the original intent of the text did not support this view. Instead, the poem portrays Inanna as arrogant and selfish, ultimately ending with explicit praise for Ereshkigal rather than Inanna. Inanna’s self-centered nature is evident throughout Mesopotamian literature. For instance, in The Epic of Gilgamesh, she demands sexual relations with Gilgamesh. When he rejects her, she sends the Bull of Heaven to destroy him. This act leads to Enkidu’s death and subsequently triggers Gilgamesh’s desperate quest for immortality.
The narrative of The Descent of Inanna begins with Inanna traveling to the underworld to attend the funeral of Gugalanna, a death she had indirectly caused. Upon her arrival, Ereshkigal is displeased. She commands Neti to enforce a ritual at each of the seven gates: Inanna must strip off her clothing and ornaments. By the time Inanna reaches the throne room, she is completely naked and vulnerable. The judges of the dead, known as the Annuna, condemn her. Ereshkigal sentences her sister to death, hanging Inanna’s corpse on a wall as a hook.
Inanna is only resurrected due to the intervention of her loyal servant, Ninshubur. Ninshubur persuades the god Enki to assist. Enki creates two galla demons and sends them to the underworld. They approach Ereshkigal, who is currently suffering from the pains of labor. The galla demons sympathize with her distress. Ereshkigal offers them a gift in exchange for assistance, and they request Inanna’s corpse in return. Ereshkigal agrees. The galla demons revive Inanna using the water of life.
When Inanna is restored to life, she must find a substitute to remain in the underworld in her place. Her husband, Dumuzi, is selected. However, his sister, Geshtinanna, volunteers to share the burden. Consequently, Dumuzi resides in the underworld for six months, while Geshtinanna occupies the throne for the other six months. Inanna returns to the earth to continue her activities.
The poem concludes with the following lines:
Holy Ereshkigal! Great is your renown! Holy Ereshkigal! I sing your praises!
Ereshkigal emerges as the primary figure due to her inherent power. The narrative addresses themes of injustice. If a powerful goddess can suffer such severe injustice, ordinary people can as well. The poem resonates with audiences by emphasizing the fairness and inevitability of the underworld’s laws.
Ereshkigal reigns alone until the war god Nergal becomes her consort. In one version of the myth, Nergal visits the underworld, spends seven days with her, leaves, but returns to stay for six months each year. Variations of this story date to the 15th century BCE in Egypt and the 7th century BCE in Assyria. The most renowned version originates from the Neo-Babylonian period (626-539 BCE) and involves Enki manipulating events to send Nergal to the underworld.
The gods held a grand banquet. Ereshkigal could not attend because she was bound to the underworld. Her son, Namtar, attended on her behalf. At the banquet, Nergal failed to stand for Namtar, an act considered a grave insult to Ereshkigal. Enki instructed Namtar to report this slight. Ereshkigal demanded that Nergal be summoned to the underworld so she could execute him.
The gods complied. Enki provided Nergal with fourteen demon escorts to assist him in passing the seven gates. When Nergal arrived, Ereshkigal ordered the gates barred behind him, intending to kill him. However, Nergal used his escorts to keep the gates open. He marched to the throne room, overpowered Namtar, and dragged Ereshkigal to the floor. Raising his axe to strike, he halted only when she pleaded for mercy. She promised to become his wife and share her power. Nergal agreed. They kissed and pledged to remain together.
This narrative shares thematic parallels with the Greek myth of Demeter and Persephone. In the Greek tale, Persephone consumes food of the dead and must spend half the year in the underworld with Hades, explaining the seasons. When Persephone is with Demeter, the world blooms; when she is with Hades, the earth freezes. The Descent of Inanna corresponds to this agricultural cycle, while The Marriage of Ereshkigal and Nergal explains the seasons of war. Military conflicts were typically waged only during specific seasons. Nergal’s posted escorts allowed him to leave without needing a replacement, stabilizing the cosmic order.
Ereshkigal is consistently portrayed as a formidable goddess. In literary accounts, she often forgives injustices for the greater good, encouraging piety among humans. The logic was that if Ereshkigal could suffer injustice and still fulfill her duties, humans should emulate her resilience. As the ruler of the underworld, she rewarded the good and punished the evil, with her primary objective being the containment of the dead within their proper realm.
The seven gates served to keep the living out and the dead in. A cult centered on the veneration of the dead grew around her worship. People honored those who entered her realm. Since the dead were believed to drink muddy water and eat dust, the living placed food on tombs and poured fresh water. It was believed this offering trickled down to the underworld. Ereshkigal’s role as a just and powerful queen made her central to Mesopotamian beliefs regarding death, morality, and the afterlife.